Full details about Biomolecules,DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis,vitamins,etc.
Tuesday, December 1, 2009
This is a versatile RNA molecule. In his famous book, RNA acts as an intermediary, such as genetic information from DNA to protein synthesis machinery. RNA also plays a more active role, performing many functions of a catalyst and recognition usually reserved for proteins. Indeed, the majority of RNA in cells found in the ribosomes - protein synthesis, our cars - and transfer RNA molecules are used to add each new amino acids to the growing protein. In addition, many small RNA molecules involved in regulation, treatment and disposal of the continuous traffic of messenger RNA. RNA polymerase from a great responsibility to create all these different RNA molecules.
RNA plant
RNA polymerase is a large factory with many moving parts. Shown here since the entry 1i6h AP, is that the yeast cells. It consists of a dozen different proteins. Together, they form a team that surrounds the DNA strands, relaxes and builds a string of RNA from information contained in DNA. After starting enzyme, the rise of faith in DNA copy of RNA polymerase RNA chains of thousands of nucleotides long.
Accuracy
As expected, RNA polymerase must be an exact copy of genetic information. To improve accuracy, correctness is a simple step to facilitate the RNA chain. Active site has been created to be able to remove nucleotides and add them to the chain growth. The enzyme normally float around nucleotide mismatch to add more if necessary as time for enzyme to remove them. This process is somewhat useless if necessary nucleotides were also dropped from time to time, but this is a small price to pay for the creation of better RNA transcripts. In general, RNA polymerase makes a mistake while adding 10,000 nucleotides, or about once in RNA chain is created.
DNA topoisomerase DNA supercoiling changes. Reduction of DNA-DNA topoisomerase. Type of DNA topoisomerase I drop a hair and DNA topoisomerase II-type knife with two teeth. DNA Topoisomerase regulates DNA supercoiling. Help topoisomerase DNA transcription and replication of DNA. And DNA topoisomerase I and DNA topoisomerase II, a DNA topoisomerase DNA topoisomerase III and IV.
DNA topoisomerase: DNA topoisomerase is an enzyme that changes the supercoiling of double DNA. DNA topoisomerase acts for a short cut one or both strands of DNA. DNA topoisomerase type I series of cuts and the level of DNA topoisomerase II knife with two strands of DNA. Coil leave DNA topoisomerase and extends the DNA molecule. DNA topoisomerase helps regulate DNA supercoiling. DNA topoisomerase using DNA replication and transcription. Just as DNA topoisomerase I and DNA topoisomerase II, a DNA topoisomerase DNA topoisomerase III and IV. DNA topoisomerase III may regulate recombination. DNA topoisomerase IV regulates the separation of newly replicated chromosomes.
Helicases are a class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. They are motor proteins that move directionally along a nucleic acid phosphodiester backbone, separating two annealed nucleic acid strands (i.e. DNA, RNA, or RNA-DNA hybrid) using energy derived from ATP hydrolysis.
Many cellular processes (DNA replication, transcription, translation, recombination, DNA repair, ribosome biogenesis) involve the separation of nucleic acid strands. Helicases are often utilized to separate strands of a DNA double helix or a self-annealed RNA molecule using the energy from ATP hydrolysis, a process characterized by the breaking of hydrogen bonds between annealed nucleotide bases. They move incrementally along one nucleic acid strand of the duplex with a directionality and processivity specific to each particular enzyme. There are many helicases (14 confirmed in E. coli, 24 in human cells) resulting from the great variety of processes in which strand separation must be catalyzed.
Helicases adopt different structures and oligomerization states. Whereas DnaB-like helicases unwind DNA as donut shaped hexamers, other enzymes have been shown to be active as monomers or dimers. Studies have shown that helicases may act passively, waiting for uncatalyzed unwinding to take place and then translocating between displaced strands, or can play an active role in catalyzing strand separation using the energy generated in ATP hydrolysis. In the latter case, the helicase acts comparably to an active motor, unwinding and translocating along its substrate as a direct result ATPase activity.. Helicases may process much faster in vivo than in vitro due to the presence of accessory proteins that aid in the destabilization of the fork junction.
Defects in the gene that codes helicase cause Werner syndrome, a disorder characterized by the appearance of premature aging.
A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides into a DNA strand. DNA polymerases are best-known for their role in DNA replication, in which the polymerase "reads" an intact DNA strand as a template and uses it to synthesize the new strand. The newly-polymerized molecule is complementary to the template strand and identical to the template's original partner strand.
DNA polymerases use a magnesium ion for catalytic activity.
DNA polymerase can add free nucleotides to only the 3’ end of the newly-forming strand. This results in elongation of the new strand in a 5'-3' direction. No known DNA polymerase is able to begin a new chain (de novo). DNA polymerase can add a nucleotide onto only a preexisting 3'-OH group, and, therefore, needs a primer at which it can add the first nucleotide. Primers consist of RNA and DNA bases with the first two bases always being RNA, and are synthesized by another enzyme called primase. An enzyme known as a helicase is required to unwind DNA from a double-strand structure to a single-strand structure to facilitate replication of each strand consistent with the semiconservative model of DNA replication.
Error correction is a property of some, but not all, DNA polymerases. This process corrects mistakes in newly-synthesized DNA. When an incorrect base pair is recognized, DNA polymerase reverses its direction by one base pair of DNA. The 3'->5' exonuclease activity of the enzyme allows the incorrect base pair to be excised Following base excision, the polymerase can re-insert the correct base and replication can continue.
Genetic genealogy gives the Genealogists, which are to examine or be supplemented means, their results of genealogy with the information, which is caught up over DNA examination. Positive test matches with another individual can: * you put to positions for further descent research at the disposal * assistance place ererbtes native country * firmly discover you living relatives * validate you existing research * confirm you or refuse you assumed connections between families* examine you or disprove you concerning theories sex
• Newborn Screening: Newborn screening immediately after birth using genetic disorders that can be treated early in life are identified. Regular testing of children for some genetic disorders and the most widely used is Geprüftmillionen children every year in the United States are examined. Coll kid on the states considered Phenylketonuria (a genetic disorder that causes mental illness, if treatment) and congenital hypothyroidism (thyroid gland disorder of).
• Clinical trials: Clinical trials to determine the status of a specific genetic or chromosome, or hit out is used. In many cases, for genetic diagnosis were confirmed when a certain situation suggested the test was based on physical changes and symptoms. One person at any time during the clinical trials done 'can be, S life, but all the genes or genetic conditions is not available for all. Clinical trial results of a one-man, S. affect health care and disease management can choose.
• carrier testing: carrier testing people, a copy of a gene mutation which, if used to identify existing lift, two copies of a genetic disorder caused. Examination of such individuals a genetic disorder that people in ethnic groups have offered to family history and increased risk of specific genetic conditions. If both parents are tested, "made a pair is available, the risk of a child with a genetic condition S test report.
• Prenatal testing: one for pre-natal testing "to detect changes in the use of embryos, genes or chromosomes before birth is s. Examination of such a genetic or chromosomal disorder, with an increased risk of having a baby has offered to couples. In some cases, a prenatal test 'two, S-uncertainty may reduce or help them decide whether pregnancy terminates. Identify all possible inherited disorders and birth can not fault.
• Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: Genetic testing that the human embryo, before implantation as part of the processes are performing in vitro fertilization.
• East and presymptomatic testing: pre-determined, changes in gene identification and evaluation of presymptomatic forms often used in later life disorders that appear after birth are associated with. These tests are the people, a genetic disorder, with one family member can help, but whatever time you test a feature of the disorder is. Pre-determined test changes, a growing 'human, such as some types of cancer as a genetic basis, the possibility of developing disorders with S can be identified. Example, one person BRCA1, 65% cumulative risk of breast cancer have a change. Can determine whether a Presymptomatic testing person (an iron overload disorder) as developed hemochromatosis is a genetic disorder, no signs or symptoms first appear. Previous results and a specific disorder, presymptomatic testing and treatment in developing decision support available information about an individual's risks can provide.
• Judicial Review: Forensic testing uses DNA sequence identity of any person for the purposes authorized. Unlike the test described above, the use of judicial review that gene mutations are associated with illness is not identified. Testing of such crime or accident victims, to identify or exclude a biological relationship between people Verbrechenverdächtigen or installation means (eg, parenthood) can cross.
Point 1 Genetic testing permits Genetic diagnosis of diseases and vulnerability to a "child, S (genetic father) or a person's sex may determine paternity can be used. Normally, each person has two copies of a gene is one that her mother, one inherited from his father but will be taken. Human genome includes around 20,000 for the trust - is 25,000 genes.
Point 2 Individual gene and gene genetic diseases, genetic disorders that are associated with increasing risk of developing type variation for the possible presence of biochemical tests in the direction of a further level of chromosomes, including genetic testing than to study. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes or proteins. Generally, changes in testing that are associated with inherited disorders is found.
Point 3 A genetic test results confirm a suspected genetic condition or can cross out or to determine a "person of science or beyond is likely to help developing a genetic disorder. Coll several hundred genetic tests are common, and more are being developed.
DNA profiling (also called DNA testing, DNA that writes, or genetic fingerprint) with a legitimate use by scientists based on their respective DNA profiles have the technology to identify individuals. The number of DNA profiles, statistics indicate that a 'person's DNA makeup, whatever' person can be used as a symbol S. S is a set of DNA not like the framework should consider the entire genome. Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, one person with one difference from DNA is quite different. DNA Framework ( "repeat") uses repeated sequences that are highly variable, together called variable number repeats (VNTR). Very between Places of human VNTRs are closely related but independent variables that people have very VNTRs are unlikely.The lawsuit starts with a champion d' a individual' ; DNA S . The method more desirable than collected of the champion of reference is l' ; j' employ plugs oral, like this reduces the possibility of contamination. When this n' (for example parce qu' is not available; a mandate can be necessary and not realizable) other methods can need d' to be employed to collect a champion d' heart, salted it, seed, or l' ; other liquidates or woven j' adapt personal articles (for example toothbrush, razor, of l' etc) or of the stored champions (woven of banking type of biopsy or for example of sperm). Champions obtained of the parents d' heart (biological relative) can provide un' ; indication d' a individual' ; profile of S, as they could the human remainders that précédentement erano shaped.
One of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, DNA sequencing allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. Developed in 1977 by Frederick Sanger and coworkers, chain-termination sequencing is now routinely used to sequence DNA fragments. With this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases.
As sequencing has become less expensive, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms, using computational tools to stitch together the sequences of many different fragments (a process called genome assembly). These technologies were used to sequence the human genome, leading to the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003. New high-throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars.
The large amount of sequence data available has created the field of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data.
Molecular models of DNA structures are representations of the molecular geometry and topology of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules using one of several means, such as: closely packed spheres (CPK models) made of plastic, metal wires for 'skeletal models', graphic computations and animations by computers, artistic rendering, and so on, with the aim of simplifying and presenting the essential, physical and chemical, properties of DNA molecular structures either in vivo or in vitro. Computer molecular models also allow animations and molecular dynamics simulations that are very important for understanding how DNA functions in vivo.
Thus, an old standing dynamic problem is how DNA "self-replication" takes place in living cells that should involve transient uncoiling of supercoiled DNA fibers. Although DNA consists of relatively rigid, very large elongated biopolymer molecules called "fibers" or chains (that are made of repeating nucleotide units of four basic types, attached to deoxyribose and phosphate groups), its molecular structure in vivo undergoes dynamic configuration changes that involve dynamically attached water molecules and ions. Supercoiling, packing with histones in chromosome structures, and other such supramolecular aspects also involve in vivo DNA topology which is even more complex than DNA molecular geometry, thus turning molecular modeling of DNA into an especially challenging problem for both molecular biologists and biotechnologists.
Like other large molecules and biopolymers, DNA often exists in multiple stable geometries (that is, it exhibits conformational isomerism) and configurational, quantum states which are close to each other in energy on the potential energy surface of the DNA molecule. Such geometries can also be computed, at least in principle, by employing ab initio quantum chemistry methods that have high accuracy for small molecules. Such quantum geometries define an important class of ab initio molecular models of DNA whose exploration has barely started.
DNA structure shows a variety of forms, both double-stranded and single-stranded. The mechanical properties of DNA, which are directly related to its structure, are a significant problem for cells. Every process which binds or reads DNA is able to use or modify the mechanical properties of DNA for purposes of recognition, packaging and modification. The extreme length (a chromosome may contain a 10 cm long DNA strand), relative rigidity and helical structure of DNA has led to the evolution of histones and of enzymes such as topoisomerases and helicases to manage a cell's DNA. The properties of DNA are closely related to its molecular structure and sequence, particularly the weakness of the hydrogen bonds and electronic interactions that hold strands of DNA together compared to the strength of the bonds within each strand.
Dna Structure
Experimental techniques which can directly measure the mechanical properties of DNA are relatively new, and high-resolution visualization in solution is often difficult. Nevertheless, scientists have uncovered large amount of data on the mechanical properties of this polymer, and the implications of DNA's mechanical properties on cellular processes is a topic of active current research.The DNA found in many cells can be macroscopic in length - a few centimetres long for each human chromosome. Consequently, cells must compact or "package" DNA to carry it within them. In eukaryotes this is carried by spool-like proteins known as histones, around which DNA winds. It is the further compaction of this DNA-protein complex which produces the well known mitotic eukaryotic chromosomes.Read more...
DNA is a normally double stranded macromolecule. Two polynucleotide chains, held together by weak thermodynamic forces, form a DNA molecule. Features of the DNA Double Helix * Two DNA strands form a helical spiral, winding around a helix axis in a right-handed spiral * The two polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions * The sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a sprial staircase * The bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase. DNA Helix AxisThe helix axis is most apparent from a view directly down the axis. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the helix where the polar phosphate groups (red and yellow atoms) can interact with the polar environment. The nitrogen (blue atoms) containing bases are inside, stacking perpendicular to the helix axis.
DNA is a polymer. The monomer units of DNA are nucleotides, and the polymer is known as a "polynucleotide." Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a nitrogen containing base attached to the sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four different types of nucleotides found in DNA, differing only in the nitrogenous base. The four nucleotides are given one letter abbreviations as shorthand for the four bases. • A is for adenine • G is for guanine • C is for cytosine • T is for thymine DNA BackboneThe DNA backbone is a polymer with an alternating sugar-phosphate sequence. The deoxyribose sugars are joined at both the 3'-hydroxyl and 5'-hydroxyl groups to phosphate groups in ester links, also known as "phosphodiester" bonds. DNA Double HelixDNA is a normally double stranded macromolecule. Two polynucleotide chains, held together by weak thermodynamic forces, form a DNA molecule.Features of the DNA Double Helix• Two DNA strands form a helical spiral, winding around a helix axis in a right-handed spiral • The two polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions • The sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a sprial staircase • The bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase.
Privacy Policy for http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/If you require any more information or have any questions about our privacy policy, please feel free to contact us by email at veni.krishna0@gmail.com.At http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/, the privacy of our visitors is of extreme importance to us. This privacy policy document outlines the types of personal information is received and collected by http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/ and how it is used.Log Files :Like many other Web sites, http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/ makes use of log files. The information inside the log files includes internet protocol ( IP ) addresses, type of browser, Internet Service Provider ( ISP ), date/time stamp, referring/exit pages, and number of clicks to analyze trends, administer the site, track user’s movement around the site, and gather demographic information. IP addresses, and other such information are not linked to any information that is personally identifiable.Cookies and Web Beacons:http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/ does use cookies to store information about visitors preferences, record user-specific information on which pages the user access or visit, customize Web page content based on visitors browser type or other information that the visitor sends via their browser.Some of our advertising partners may use cookies and web beacons on our site. Our advertising partners include Google Adsense, .These third-party ad servers or ad networks use technology to the advertisements and links that appear on http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/ send directly to your browsers. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. Other technologies ( such as cookies, JavaScript, or Web Beacons ) may also be used by the third-party ad networks to measure the effectiveness of their advertisements and / or to personalize the advertising content that you see.http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/ has no access to or control over these cookies that are used by third-party advertisers.You should consult the respective privacy policies of these third-party ad servers for more detailed information on their practices as well as for instructions about how to opt-out of certain practices. http://biomolecules-world.blogspot.com/’s privacy policy does not apply to, and we cannot control the activities of, such other advertisers or web sites.If you wish to disable cookies, you may do so through your individual browser options. More detailed information about cookie management with specific web browsers can be found at the browsers’ respective websites.Update :We use third-party advertising companies to serve ads when you visit our website. These companies may use information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) about your visits to this and other websites in order to provide advertisements about goods and services of interest to you.Yours Sincerelyveni.krishna0@gmail.com
Human genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. Study of human genetics can be useful as it can answer questions about human nature, understand the diseases and development of effective disease treatment, and understand genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: Medical genetics.
A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes. While some diseases, such as cancer, are due in part to a genetic disorders, they can also be caused by environmental factors. Most disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. Some types of recessive gene disorders confer an advantage in the heterozygous state in certain environments.[1] A haploid cell has only one set of chromosomes. A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes. In human, the somatic cells are diploid, and the gametes are haploid.
Human genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. Study of human genetics can be useful as it can answer questions about human nature, understand the diseases and development of effective disease treatment, and understand genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: Medical genetics.
Genomics
Genomics refers to the field of genetics concerned with structural and functional studies of the genome. A genome is all the DNA contained within an organism or a cell including nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The human genome is the total collection of genes in a human being contained in the human chromosome, composed of over three billion nucleotides. In April 2003, the Human Genome Project was able to sequence all the DNA in the human genome, to discover the human genome was composed around 20,000 protein coding genes.
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, color) and σῶμα (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 10,000 to 1,000,000,000nucleotides in a long chain. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes.
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis results in the classic four-arm structure (pictured to the right). Chromosomal recombination plays a vital role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die, or it may aberrantly evade apoptosis leading to the progression of cancer.
However, in practice "chromosome" is a rather loosely defined term. In prokaryotes, a small circular DNA molecule may be called either a plasmid or a small chromosome. These small circular genomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. The simplest chromosomes are found in viruses: these DNA or RNA molecules are short linear or circular chromosomes that often lack any structural proteins.
Genes are a fundamental unit of inheritance. Genes can be defined as a sequence of DNA in the genome that is required for production of a functional product. Genes have both minor and major effects on human characteristics. Human genes have become prominent in the nature versus nurture debate.Genes and behaviorGenes have a strong influence on human behavior. IQ is largely heritable. However, this has been questioned. The stance that humans inherit substantial behavioral characteristics is called psychological nativism, compared to the stance that human behavior and culture are virtually entirely constructed (tabula rasa).In the early 20th century, eugenics was policy in parts of the United States and Europe. The goal was to reduce or eliminate traits that were considered undesirable. One form of eugenics was compulsory sterilization of people deemed mentally unfit. Hitler's eugenics programs turned social consciousness against the practice, and psychological nativism became associated with racism and sexism.Genes and genderThe biggest genetic difference among healthy humans is in gender Scientists debate the extent to which genes and culture affect gender roles. The case of David Reimer was once a case in point for the tabula rasa camp, though recently that same case has become evidence for a strong genetic component to gender identity.Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology explains many human behaviors as more or less moderated by genes that evolved in the hunter-gatherer stage of human cultural development Genetic disordersMain article: Genetic disorderHumans have several genetic diseases, often caused by recessive genes. A few examples of human genetic diseases are: Turner Syndrome, Huntington's disease, cancer, autism, and sickle cell anemia. For a more comprehensive list see List of genetic disorders. Genetic disorders happen everywhere and are very common in some places.• Cri du Chat syndrome – A disorder caused from a deletion on the short arm of chromosome 5. This deletion results in a phenotype of mental retardation, behavioral problems, and a cat like call. About one in every 50,000 births will have the syndrome.• Huntington's disease – A neurological disorder caused by a trinucleotide repeat sequence. Huntingtons is an autosomal dominant trait. Most individuals with the disease will first display the phenotype around 40 years of age. The symptoms are jerky uncontrollable movements, mental retardation, and behavioral problems. • Turner syndrome – A condition that effects females caused by a 45, XO genotype instead of the normal XX genotype. These individuals have only one X chromosome. These individuals are phenotypically female, but will be sterile due to undeveloped ovaries.• Klinefelter syndrome – A disorder in males caused by the presence of an extra X chromosome. These individuals have a genotype of 47, XXY instead of the normal XY genotype. The symptoms for this syndrome are enlarged breasts, small testes, and sterility.
Genetic erosion is a process whereby an already limited gene pool of an endangered species of plant or animal diminishes even more when individuals from the surviving population die off without getting a chance to meet and breed with others in their endangered low population.Genetic erosion occurs because each individual organism has many unique genes which get lost when it dies without getting a chance to breed. Low genetic diversity in a population of wild animals and plants leads to a further diminishing gene pool, inbreeding and a weakening immune system and fast tracks that species towards eventual extinction.All the world's endangered species are plagued by varying degrees of genetic erosion and most need a human assisted breeding program to keep their population viable and to keep them from going extinct in the long run. The more critically endangered the species is (the smaller the population is), the more magnified the effect of genetic erosion gets when each surviving individual of the species is lost without getting a chance to breed.Genetic erosion gets compounded and accelerated by habitat fragmentation, today most endangered species live in smaller and smaller chunks of fragmented habitat interspersed with human settlements and farmland making it impossible for them to naturally meet and breed with others of their kind, many die off without getting a chance to breed and pass on their genes in the living population.The gene pool of a species or a population is the complete set of unique alleles that would be found by inspecting the genetic material of every living member of that species or population. A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction.
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• Loss of function experiments, such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene, which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by embryonic stem cells, wherein the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as Drosophila (fruitfly), is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes.
• Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.
• Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.
• Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyzes the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed. Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as promoter bashing.
Genetics a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes.Genes correspond to regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotides—the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other. Each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand—this is the physical method for making copies of genes that can be inherited.The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating proteins—the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code. The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three-dimensional shape; this structure is, in turn, responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole.Although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. For example, while genes play a role in determining an organism's size, the nutrition and other conditions it experiences after inception also have a large effect.
There are a number of ways through which genetic engineering is accomplished. Essentially, the process has five main steps
1.Isolation of the genes of interest
2.Insertion of the genes into a transfer vector
3.Transfer of the vector to the organism to be modified
4.Transformation of the cells of the organism
5.Selection of the genetically modified organism (GMO) from those that have not been successfully modified
Isolation is achieved by identifying the gene of interest that the scientist wishes to insert into the organism, usually using existing knowledge of the various functions of genes. DNA information can be obtained from cDNA or gDNA libraries, and amplified using PCR techniques. If necessary, i.e. for insertion of eukaryotic genomic DNA into prokaryotes, further modification may be carried out such as removal of introns or ligating prokaryotic promoters.
Insertion of a gene into a vector such as a plasmid can be done once the gene of interest is isolated. Other vectors can also be used, such as viral vectors, bacterial conjugation, liposomes, or even direct insertion using a gene gun. Restriction enzymes and ligases are of great use in this crucial step if it is being inserted into prokaryotic or viral vectors. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their isolation of restriction endonucleases.
Once the vector is obtained, it can be used to transform the target organism. Depending on the vector used, it can be complex or simple. For example, using raw DNA with gene guns is a fairly straightforward process but with low success rates, where the DNA is coated with molecules such as gold and fired directly into a cell. Other more complex methods, such as bacterial transformation or using viruses as vectors have higher success rates.
After transformation, the GMO can be selected from those that have failed to take up the vector in various ways. One method is screening with DNA probes that can stick to the gene of interest that was supposed to have been transplanted. Another is to package genes conferring resistance to certain chemicals such as antibiotics or herbicides into the vector. This chemical is then applied ensuring that only those cells that have taken up the vector will survive.
Lung cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. This growth may lead to metastasis, which is the invasion of adjacent tissue and infiltration beyond the lungs. The vast majority of primary lung cancers are carcinomas of the lung, derived from epithelial cells. Lung cancer, the most common cause of cancer-related death in men and the second most common in women is responsible for 1.3 million deaths worldwide annually. The most common symptoms are shortness of breath, coughing (including coughing up blood), and weight loss.
The main types of lung cancer are small cell lung carcinoma and non-small cell lung carcinoma. This distinction is important, because the treatment varies; non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is sometimes treated with surgery, while small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiation. The most common cause of lung cancer is long-term exposure to tobacco smokeThe occurrence of lung cancer in nonsmokers, who account for as many as 15% of cases , is often attributed to a combination of genetic factors, radon gas, asbestos, and air pollution,including secondhand smoke.
Lung cancer may be seen on chest radiograph and computed tomography (CT scan). The diagnosis is confirmed with a biopsy. This is usually performed via bronchoscopy or CT-guided biopsy. Treatment and prognosis depend upon the histological type of cancer, the stage (degree of spread), and the patient's performance status. Possible treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. With treatment, the five-year survival rate is 14%.
